Topic: Greco-Roman World and Early Middle Ages in Europe

Weekly Schedule
Due Date	Activity
July 7	Read & examine this week's module Textbook: Chapters 7-9 Watch: All Videos
July 7	Midterm Exam

Image: Augustus

Summary:

Ancient and Classical Greece

Greek civilization can be traced to a non-Greek population, the Minoans, who established a flourishing and prosperous culture on Crete by 2000 B.C.E. In decline by about 1450 B.C.E., Minoan culture gave way to the rise of the Mycenaeans, a Greek people who had had extensive contact with the Minoans. Around 1200 BCE, the Mycenaean world experienced the same disruptions and devastation wrought by the invasions of the "Sea Peoples". Greece entered a period known as the "dark ages" that lasted until the 700s BCE. Great city-states emerged from this period and their dynamic societies made enduring contributions to our Western heritage. This period also marked the beginning of the greatest Greek accomplishments in philosophy, history writing, art, politics, and literature. Rationalism—the basis for Greek philosophy—was among the Greeks’ lasting contributions to Western civilization. The chapter compares the societies of Athens and Sparta and describes how political participation and warfare fostered philosophical questioning and artistic innovation.

Rome

On the Italian peninsula, on hills overlooking a fertile plain and the Tiber River, a new city-state emerged whose citizens became masters of the world. Hardworking and serious, the Romans valued family and city above all else. After a period of monarchy, Romans developed a new form of government, the republic, in which both rich and poor citizens participated. Rome then turned outward, conquering the Italian peninsula before turning to the Mediterranean. Military success strengthened Rome with wealth and slaves and brought the influence of Hellenistic culture to the city. Unfortunately, the republican form of government degenerated into power struggles and violence. Nonetheless, Rome left its mark on Western civilization in the form of laws, technology, and a way of life.

The republican government of Rome was unable to withstand the debilitating social and political divisions that intensified in the first century BCE. Patricians and plebeians alike turned against traditional rule and sought to undermine the Senatorial authority. Julius Caesar, Pompey the Great, and Crassus formed the First Triumvirate with the aim of achieving personal wealth and power. Their actions increased the size and power of the Rome, but this expansion deteriorated the bonds that held the Republic together. The collapse of the First Triumvirate led to a major Civil War between Pompey and Caesar. After the disastrous battle of Pharsalus and the death of Pompey in Egypt, Julius Caesar emerged as the sole victor. A group of Senators led by Brutus and Cassius, conspired against Caesar and murdered him on the Ides of March (March 15) of 44 BCE. Unwittingly, the murder of Caesar marked the transformation of Rome from a republic to an empire. Although interpretations of his rule vary, his murder solved none of the social or political problems of Rome. The violence would continue until a new leader established another form of government that would last even longer than the Roman republic.

A Second Triumvirate was formed by Caesar's heir and two of Caesars Generals. Octavian, Marc Antony, and Lepidus unleashed a new wave of violence and war that dismantled the old Senatorial power and essentially destroyed the Republic. After turning on his allies in a violent civil war, Octavian (known as Augustus) seized power and transformed the Roman government into a new system, the principate, which combined the absolute power of the emperor with the administrative talents of the Senate.

The Empire

Following the death of Augustus in 14 CE the empire grew dramatically, by the time of Trajan's reign (ruled 98-117), Rome had dramatically expanded its territory. In the third century, political, economic, and environmental problems severely weakened the Roman world, and invasions by barbarians became a serious and continuous threat. In 284, a new, strong emperor, Diocletian, tried to reform the government and the army, and to strengthen the Roman world against its many problems, dividing the Roman world into an eastern half and a western half, each under a separate emperor, in order to ease the burden of ruling such a large and complex world. The empire of the Dominate crumbled in 476 in the western half, but lasted much longer in the east. During this traumatic period, loss of territory and the economic decimation of the country led people to adopt far more mystical religions and philosophies, but particularly Christianity. No one was more important to the new faith than Emperor Constantine (306-337). Beginning in 306, he ruled over a united empire from a new capital city in the east--the old Greek city of Byzantium--which became known as Constantinople and rapidly eclipsed Rome as the premier city of the empire. Constantine's fame as one of the most important Roman rulers stems from his acceptance of Christianity as a legal religion in 312. Although he did not make Christianity the state religion, its new legal status provoked a wild proliferation of the faith, particularly in the eastern half of the empire. All subsequent emperors were Christians by profession, except for Constantine's nephew, Julian ("the Apostate," ruled 361-363), who made a brief attempt to restore Rome's pagan state religion but without lasting success.

Early Middle Ages

The Roman Empire underwent a major transition as it lost the ability to maintain peace within its borders. The Empire fragmented into three culturally distinct parts in which language, religion, and loyalties separated people. In the west, Germanic invaders established new kingdoms, converted to Christianity and blended their own culture with that of Romans now living under their rule. In the east, the Roman Empire persisted for approximately another thousand years, but Byzantium was centered upon Constantinople and began to develop different characteristics with time. The language changed to Greek, while Slavic tribes in the north and Latins in the west influenced the development of a new empire. Finally, in the desert of Arabia, a prophet founded a new religion, which would soon spread rapidly, conquering the eastern and western shores of the Mediterranean and most of the Iberian peninsula. These three civilizations coexisted uneasily, and their differences and conflicts would destroy Roman unity and shape Europe's future.

After the disruptions of the fifth, sixth, and seventh centuries, western Europeans struggled to restore order to their societies. A new social order emerged, in which all members of society were tied to one another through mutual obligations. The basis for the new culture that accompanied this social system was a mixture of Germanic, Christian, and Roman traditions. Early Germanic kings struggled to bring stability to their lands with the use of written law codes. Kings also encouraged intellectual activities which flourished with their patronage and participation. In Anglo-Saxon England, the blending of customary law with the other traditions planted the seeds of a constitutional government. On the continent, under Frankish rulers, this blending of traditions met with the most success. Cooperation between church and state gave Charlemagne's dynasty great legitimacy. The peace and prosperity of these newly consolidated and centralized kingdoms was short-lived, however, as invasions of new peoples in the tenth century undermined the achievements of the preceding centuries.

Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this week's module, students will be able to:

Analyze the major developments and contributions of Ancient Greece
Examine the major historical events in Ancient Rome

- The Rise of Rome
- Establishment of the Republic
- The Civil Wars and decline of the Republic
- The Rise of Augustus and the Empire
- The Decline of the Empire

Examine the major historical events that led to the disintegration of Roman unity
Explore the emergence of Germanic Societies in Europe