Online Reading: Recognizing Arguments - Week #02

INTRODUCTION

At the start of our semester, you are fine-tuning your ability to recognize arguments. 

An argument is a statement that's supported by one or more other statements.  It may not be convincing, but one or more statements are attempting to support another statement. 

 

ANALYZING ARGUMENTS

Arguments contain a conclusion and at least one premise.  The conclusion is the statement that's being supported by the others.  A premise is a statement that's attempting to support the conclusion.   Again, it may or may not actually be convincing.  But it is attempting to support the conclusion. 

Sometimes the conclusion is the last sentence in the passage:

You got 10 out 20 points on the first quiz; so you should ask the teacher questions about the examples you missed. 

Sometimes the conclusion is the first sentence in the passage:

You should ask the teacher questions about the examples you missed; since you got 10 out of 20 points on the first quiz.  

Sometimes the conclusion is in the middle of the passage: 

You got 10 out 20 points on the first quiz; so you should ask the teacher questions about the examples you missed; since 10 out of 20 points is an F. 

In the end, a sentence's location can not tell you if it's a conclusion or premise.  The conclusion is the statement being supported by another statement or statements.  A premise is a statement attempting to support a conclusion. 

All arguments have one and only one conclusion.  All arguments have one or more premises.   If a passage doesn't have a conclusion and at least one premise, it is not an argument.  For, remember, an argument is a statement (i.e., Conclusion) that's supported by one or more other statements (i.e., Premise). 

 

INDICATOR WORDS

It will be important to learn how to tell the difference between the conclusion and a premise.  The most important thing is to remember what they are.  It's the difference between the statement that's being support and the statement or statements that are supporting it.   

Thankfully, some arguments include terms that help you recognize this difference between a conclusion or premise.  They are called Indicator Words or Indicators.  

Some indicators are Conclusion Indicators.  They signal that the conclusion is about to be stated.  While there is no definitive list of conclusion indicators, here is a list of common words or phrases signaling that the conclusion is about to be stated: 

1. 1. 1.  Therefore 
      2.  It follows that 
      3.  In conclusion
      4.  So
      5.  It's safe to say

Consider the following examples: 

Example #1: 

You want an A in this class.  Therefore, you should ask questions when you are confused.  

Example #2: 

You want an A in this class.  It follows that you should ask questions when you are confused.  

Example #3: 

You want an A in this class.  So, you should ask questions when you are confused.  

Learning to recognize conclusion indicators can help you recognize that the conclusion is what follows "Therefore," "It follows that," and "So" in these examples.  By the way, did you notice that Example #1, #2, and #3 are the same argument?  They have the same conclusion and premise. 

In the end, any word or phrase that signals the conclusion is about to be stated is considered a conclusion indicator. 

Similarly, some indicators are Premise Indicators.  They signal that the premise is about to be stated.  While there is no definitive list of premise indicators, here is a list of common words or phrases signaling that the premise is about to be stated: 

1. 1. 1.  Since
      2.  For 
      3.  After all
      4.  Think about it
      5.  First, Second, Third 

Consider the following examples: 

Example #4: 

You should ask questions when you are confused, since you want an A in this class.  

Example #5: 

You should ask questions when you are confused, for you want an A in this class.  

Example #6: 

You should ask questions when you are confused.  After all, you want an A in this class.

Learning to recognize premise indicators can help you recognize that the premise is what follows "Since" "For" and "After all" in these examples.  By the way, did you notice that Example #1 through #6 is the same argument?  Each has the same conclusion and premise.  Learning to recognize conclusion and premise indicators can help you recognize that. 

In the end, any word or phrase that signals a premise is about to be stated is considered a premise indicator.

 

NO INDICATOR WORDS?  UNDERSTANDING CONTEXT

Lastly, while many arguments contain a conclusion indicator and/or premise indicator, many arguments have neither.  In the end, indicator words are a lot like indicator lights on a car.  They're helpful but unnecessary.  In the end, indicator words are just one type of contextual clue helping one recognize an argument's conclusion and premise(s).  

Other contextual clues include: 

1. 1. 1.  A dialogue during which someone asks something like "Why do you think that?", "Why do you say that?", or "Why is that?" are common ways of asking for a premise. 
      2.  A dialogue during which someone expresses disagreement or doubt -- e.g., "I don't know -- after a statement are commonly followed by an argument. 

In the end, there is no formulaic list of indicators or other contextual clues.  Learning to recognize arguments requires learning how to recognize contextual clues.  Read each example carefully and ask if a statement is being supported by one or more other statements.  That is the difference between a conclusion and a premise.  

 

NOT ABOUT IMPLICATION

When you're asked to identify an argument's conclusion or premise(s), you are not being asked about the argument's implications.  Here's an example:

Colonel Mustard shot and killed Professor Plum with a revolver.  After all, they were the only people in the professor's house the day Professor Plum died. 

What's the conclusion?  It's "Colonel Mustard shot and killed Professor Plum with a revolver." It's not "Professor Plum was killed."   Nor is it "Colonel Mustard killed Professor Plum."  Nor is it "Colonel Mustard shot Professor Plum."  It's not even that Professor Plum died from a gunshot.  While the argument seems to imply this information.  This is not the point of the argument.  The point of the argument is that "Colonel Mustard shot and killed Professor Plum with a revolver."  That's the conclusion.  

Similarly, what's the premise?  It's "They were the only people in the professor's house the day Professor Plum died." It's not "Professor Plum lived in the house."  While the argument seems to imply this, that's not the point of the premise.  It's claiming more than this.  It's claiming that these two were the only people in the professor's house on the day he died.  That's the premise. 

When you are asked to identify a conclusion or premise, don't identify implications.  Focus on what's being claimed.   

 

AN IMPORTANT LESSON ABOUT CONTEXT 

At the same time, often we must rely on context to understand an argument's conclusion or premise.  Here's an example.  To help, I've written the argument in italicized and red font:

Dog #1: We shouldn't chase that cat. 

Dog #2: Why Not? 

Dog #1: We'll get in trouble.  

Dog #2: We should do it.  After all, it'll be fun. 

Examples like this can be confusing.  Here's why.  What is the conclusion?  Well, to quote it, the conclusion is "We should do it."  However, if someone told me that the conclusion is "We should chase the cat," I would say you're right.  For, in this context, that's what "We should do it" means.  

Now consider this example: 

Student #1: We shouldn't study anymore. 

Student #2: I think we should study more.  

Student #1: No.  We've already been studying for an hour.  

Student #2: We should do it, since we want to get a B or A. 

What's the conclusion?  Well, to quote it, the conclusion is "We should do it."  That's right.  It's the same as the previous example. Only, in this context, those words mean something different.  In this context, "We should do it" means "We should study more."  

Sometimes students will be confused by this, saying something like, "But that (i.e., "We should study more") isn't part of the argument."  It's true that those words are outside the argument.  But it's also true that the argument's conclusion is, "We should do it" and, in this context, that means "We should study more."

This can be especially important when dealing with multiple-choice questions.  Here's why.   Imagine seeing the above example with two students.  You're asked to identify the conclusion, and you're given the following options: 

1. 1. 1.  We should study more 
      2.  We want to get a B or A 
      3.  We like to study 
      4.  None of the above

Hopefully, it's obvious that the answer isn't C.  The red and italicized argument doesn't say anything like that.  Neither is the answer B.  That's the premise.  However, it's common for students to answer D.  When this happens they usually rightly point out that the conclusion is "We should do it."  However, they fail to recognize that, in this context, that means "We should study more."  By answering D, you are saying that the conclusion is not "We should study more," and that is the conclusion.  That is the statement that the premise is supporting.  So the correct answer would be A.    

To help you, our practice examples, quiz examples, and test examples will be highlighted, usually in red and italicized font.  When you're asked to recognize an argument's conclusion or premise, always focus on the argument.  However, when there is some additional context, you want to look at that context in order to understand what the argument's words mean.  Think of the context as the background.  It's not the argument.  But it can help you understand the argument. 

 

YOU'RE READY TO PRACTICE

It's time to start practicing.  As you review our practice examples and prepare for this week's Required Skills Quiz, keep the following in mind.  Remember what an argument is.  Remember the difference between the conclusion and a premise.  Remember to look for indicator words.  Remember to look at other contextual clues (especially in dialogues).  Finally, remember to ask questions when you're confused.   You also can go into more detail by looking at this week's recommended reading in the textbook: Chapter 2. 

Good luck!