4.9 Challenges and Opportunities
Instructor's Video Links to an external site.
Race and Ethnicity
In 1992, the Nobel Committee awarded its Peace Prize to Rigoberta Menchú Tum, the daughter of poor Guatemalan peasants, for her work promoting indigenous rights. Her prize highlighted a major change in Latin American politics. Throughout the 1980s and early 1990s, prominent indigenous movements emerged in countries such as Bolivia, Ecuador, Guatemala, and Mexico. As a result, Latin American countries undertook unprecedented reforms to address ethnic diversity: politicians amended national constitutions to recognize indigenous people, passed laws supporting bicultural education and affirmative action, and added questions about race and ethnicity to official censuses. Today, indigenous people not only are actively involved in politics but also have risen to leadership positions. Evo Morales, an indigenous Bolivian, has served as his country’s president since 2006. Ollanta Humala, an indigenous Peruvian, became Peru’s president in 2011. Such a shift would not have been possible 50 years ago.
Nevertheless, throughout Latin America, race and ethnicity continue to be among the most important determinants of access to opportunity and economic advancement. Indigenous and Afro-descendant peoples in Latin America represent 40 percent of the total population yet they remain a disproportionate segment of the poorest of the poor. While a priority for social inclusion, they have not seen the sharp reductions in poverty experienced by the overall population and are still more likely than the general population to live in extreme poverty. In countries such as Bolivia, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, and Paraguay, for example, over 60 percent of Indigenous peoples and Afro-descendants are poor.
In Panama, 90 percent of Indigenous peoples live below the poverty line and 69.5 percent live in extreme poverty, compared to just 30 percent of the non-Indigenous population. In Peru, 34 percent of Afro-descendants live below the poverty line, compared to only 23 percent of mestizos. In Brazil, per capita monthly incomes for Brazilians of European descent are more than double those of Afro-descendants. Similar poverty and income gaps can be found in countries throughout the region.
Despite some advances, there continue to be serious hurdles limiting Afro-descendants’ access to primary and secondary education in countries such as Colombia, Costa Rica and Panama. There are also serious concerns related to gaps in quality and access to higher education. For example, Afro-descendants obtain a university degree at half the rate of the national average in Colombia and Costa Rica, despite relative parity in primary and secondary education attainment rates.
In Mexico, Indigenous individuals receive lower-quality health care services regardless of their personal income level. According to one report, the health care available to Indigenous peoples living in rural areas was equivalent to the quality of care available to the poorest quintile of non- Indigenous people. In other words, the poorest non Indigenous individuals have the same level of access to health care as the wealthiest Indigenous wage earners.
The Drug Trade
The primary drugs traded in Latin America are cocaine, heroin, marijuana, and methamphetamine. Most drugs are produced in or pass through northwestern South America, Central America and Mexico and are consumed in the U.S. or Western Europe. Production of cocaine, heroin and meth is illegal in most of Latin America. However, public officials from the local police to high level officials are paid to ignore the industry. Most coca growers are small-scale farmers of indigenous or mestizo origin, working in remote locations where they can make a better income for their families than from other cash crops. Many rent from the drug cartels. In Columbia, the illegal drug trade has financed all sides of a civil war that displaced more than 6.5 million people over the past several decades. Mexico has endured a decade of armed conflict between powerful drug cartels. The "drug war" is estimated to have cost 260,000 deaths, 37,000 missing people and at least 350,000 people to flee their homes and communities due to the violence.
The US led war on drugs has been so ineffective that most countries in the region are considering different approaches to limiting drug trade. Since the war on drugs began in 1971, the US military has collaborated with national militaries to eradicate drug crops and intercept drug shipments. Almost 50 years later, illegal drug production in Latin America is higher than ever. In fact, these days it exceeds the demand in the U.S. Militarized responses have been totally ineffective. Attempts by Mexican police and military and US authorities to control drug cartel terrorism have resulted in much higher murder rates in these areas.
In the region, many countries are now legalizing drugs in an attempt to curb the illegal trade and are instead treating drug use as a public health issue. In 2009 Mexico decriminalized possession of small amounts of most drugs including marijuana, cocaine, heroin, meth and LSD. Most South American countries have made similar moves. In 2018 Mexico legalized marijuana use, cultivation sale and distribution. Uruguay did so in 2013 and Colombia in 2015.
Urbanization
Since the 1950's, cities have grown rapidly in this region as most rural people have migrated to cities and towns which now hold more than 80 % of the population. Chronically short of funding and at times subject to significant corruption, cities have been unable to plan for much of this growth leading to cities with inadequate services and infrastructure.
A number of Latin American cities have become primate cities, where a large percentage of the population lives in just one city. Mexico City has more than 17% of Mexico's total population; Santiago 39% of that country's population; Lima 31% of that country's population; Buenos Aires 30%; and Managua, Nicaragua, 40%. The concentration of people in just one or two cities can overwhelm the infrastructure.
Cities have been unable to cope with their massive growth. Unplanned slums exist in most Latin American cities filled with very poor migrants often living in self-built housing, in unoccupied land or parks, or abandoned buildings.
The best known of these slums are the favelas of Brazil. Elsewhere they are know as colonias,, barrios or barriadas. The settlements often spring up overnight, a coordinated move by a number of poor homeless families. They rarely have the land owners permission and are without city supplied water, sewer and electricity. Housing is constructed from whatever is available. Structures can be unsafe, electricity is connected illegally. Fire, electrocution, and waterborne disease are common. Crime is a huge problem, with police often unwilling to enter the maze of narrow passageways. Nearby wealthy neighborhoods barricade themselves with walls and security guards.
Despite all of the negatives, residents of the favelas are creative and enterprising people. They organize to press governments for social services and infrastructure. The economies of the favelas are busy with much activity in the informal sector. Housing may be intermingled with shops, factories, warehouses and artists. Community pride and work are common features. An amazing local craft and music culture flourish.
Learn More
Life for Indigenous people in Bolivia
Links to an external site.
Black in Latin America
Links to an external site.